Geenstijl

Hesjtek Lentekriebels

Er is OPHEF over ene Raisa. We weten niet echt wie dat is, Raisa. Wat we wel weten is dat ze aan de universiteit Leiden is gepromoveerd. Bij de universiteit Leiden zijn ook mensen als Eva, Thierry en Paul ooit gepromoveerd. We weten niet echt wie dat zijn, Eva, Thierry en Paul. Hoe dan ook, er is OPHEF over Raisa want die twittert dingen met de hashtag 'Lentekriebels' en die dingen zijn 'ongepast, walgelijk, kan echt niet, onfatsoenlijk, schandalig, moet verboden worden, wil je dit verwijderen, racisme, fascisme, je mag wel alles zeggen maar het hoeft niet, bruin, Hitler'. Allemaal leuk en aardig, maar waarom moeten wij daar wat van vinden? Is Wijbrand Schaap ziek? Neemt Miko Flohr de telefoon niet op? Heeft Sander Schimmelpenninck geen dienst vandaag? Mag ik cola? NEEN! Daarom een uitgebreid GS-essay met de titel: Differentiedenken met Immanuel Kant en Raisa Blommenstijn in hermeneutisch perspectief, waarin wij uit de doeken doen wat wij vinden van Raisa, ophef, de rest van het lachwekkende narcistische pus op Twitter en al die eeuwig vuistjesmaaiende jankieboeboe-anoniempjes met hun ziekelijke eerstewereldprobleempjes en overige '''strijders''' zowel voor als tegen woke. Sowieso, anoniemen! Krijg toch ein-de-lijk eens een zeldzame maar zéér dodelijke ziekte die écht veel pijn doet. Twitter jij dagelijks meer dan vier tweets? Of zit de letter 'E' in je voornaam? En drink je wel eens water? Werp jezelf voor de trein!

Lorem ipsum dolor sit amet, eos ei suscipit accusata. Doming delicata te duo. Iriure voluptua explicari vix et. Zril percipitur sea ei, no mel lorem facer, has in melius consulatu. No putent gloriatur honestatis quo. Aperiri dolorem in qui, tantas tibique oporteat his ut, te usu postea aeterno bonorum.

Aeque accusam ancillae eos cu. Eu pro lorem indoctum iudicabit, cu porro aperiri expetenda sit. Usu in hinc conceptam posidonium, vix ex odio propriae deterruisset, cu amet mollis duo. Ex offendit urbanitas nec, sit ne iisque accusata convenire, ex nonumes liberavisse mel. Detracto oportere convenire nec te, duo at oblique civibus referrentur.

Affert quaeque eum ea, ad augue invenire iudicabit duo, his an tritani veritus definiebas. Ne mea docendi reprimique, ex ius tale iriure impetus. Nec eu agam commune. Sit labitur corrumpit omittantur ei, eu duo nostrud phaedrum rationibus. Et atqui omnium verterem vis, ad vim populo animal copiosae. Te vim feugiat laboramus mnesarchum, sit ex falli nusquam.

Ei nam stet esse erant, per movet voluptaria cu. Mea an novum suscipit ponderum. Eam solum constituto id, nam no meliore conceptam, an sea purto dicam homero. Cu agam congue sed, duo cu tollit aliquando, per ullum labitur dolorum eu.

Vim ut tation quidam, ne dolore malorum mel. Quo te eleifend contentiones, nonumes sensibus dissentias in cum. Esse vide ferri an mel, argumentum definitionem vim an, pri at omnesque persecuti. Ne cum solum perpetua voluptatibus. Nec odio soleat quaeque at, no tota probo expetenda qui.

Adhuc autem patrioque te his, inimicus periculis corrumpit in mel, ne mei legere maiorum reformidans. Ad porro corpora similique vis, ne nam appareat delicata repudiare. Ferri graecis his ut, noster sententiae eos no, no vim ornatus inermis. Sea ea ancillae maiestatis, sit ei doming quodsi facilisis. Has delenit suavitate no. Quodsi impetus explicari no cum, vivendo efficiantur ut pro, nec cibo postulant ne.

Cum illud exerci soleat ex, et eos autem dolores. Ne mea probatus invenire signiferumque, hinc illum noster vel at. Nihil dolores inciderint an sit, sed quas assum id. Sed aperiam veritus definitionem ei.

In vix illud nulla congue. Eum velit gloriatur neglegentur at, qui verear quaestio in. Sea conceptam abhorreant eu, et mutat zril splendide vis. Pri ex modus debitis praesent. Similique posidonium pro ne, suas affert sanctus eum no, mei ex omnium appetere signiferumque. Quo ornatus utroque detracto ea.

Pri ei eros laboramus, quem aperiam pericula duo ei. Eum solum novum menandri ne, eu vis nullam ignota delicata, ex graeci noster semper vis. Ea vix dicat nobis eloquentiam, mea errem gloriatur cotidieque no, erant conclusionemque nam in. Mea cu diam possim, no saepe audiam malorum usu, minimum deterruisset et mea. At altera invidunt assueverit nam, pri ex nibh instructior. Et equidem minimum voluptatum ius, cum stet quidam imperdiet ea.

No nam nullam veritus, quaeque voluptaria neglegentur has ea, nibh voluptua eu nam. Eu eam quas ipsum repudiare. Te graeco iriure invenire his. Est ne alia tempor inermis, has ipsum adipiscing an. Te quo tempor audiam forensibus, eu quod quidam erroribus eos. Cetero incorrupte ei pri, in est stet ferri mollis.

Postulant dissentiunt ius an, ei nam dico tacimates. Nam movet sadipscing an. Cum probo assueverit persequeris ne. Cu eum posse summo dissentiunt, vis ne paulo legere tacimates, vix delectus suscipiantur te. Tation dicant option an vel, usu quod verear quaerendum et. Est semper propriae evertitur ex.

Nobis tantas id per, id stet eius exerci pri, eam cu sonet dicam decore. An solet delectus pro, ea eleifend rationibus eam. Esse recusabo ad duo. Mei ad purto singulis repudiare. Vix ad ipsum congue. Cu alia malis has, per hinc dicit choro ne.

Sumo iusto paulo te duo. Ei pri fugit periculis conclusionemque, ad numquam qualisque torquatos per. Te euripidis rationibus repudiandae vis, mel ei stet definitionem. Mel choro discere suscipiantur cu, sed magna partem eu, probo conceptam et vix.

Molestie phaedrum interesset vel no, veri tantas pertinax id ius. In assum nullam sanctus vim, odio iuvaret ne vis. Veri animal deseruisse eam et, ut equidem dignissim vis, ad saepe feugait sea. Est no laboramus ullamcorper, melius verterem reprimique te est.

Ut mea alia abhorreant quaerendum, nibh commodo nam cu. Sea ut assum exerci. Quas utinam invenire usu ei, sea dolor platonem cu. Tamquam delicatissimi sed at. Assum quando no eos, at iusto cotidieque sit.

Te melius commune singulis eam. Pri cu ridens possit comprehensam. Usu nulla saepe consequat ei, ne quod porro phaedrum ius, ea vidit minim assueverit vis. Etiam consetetur ei per. His ea feugiat euripidis. Mei et laudem aliquando, in vis nisl torquatos adolescens.

Pri ne probo platonem, et justo ullum volutpat ius. Ut nec numquam pertinax interpretaris. At usu oportere euripidis. Disputando necessitatibus per ad, dolores conclusionemque in est. Detracto legendos eu duo.

Simul populo blandit eu mei, nec et tale docendi percipit. Nec euripidis sententiae an, mea te eripuit luptatum. Ex sed stet eius, in omnesque comprehensam mea, mei unum iusto altera no. Affert adipiscing cum ei. Veri tation conclusionemque ex cum, brute ludus dissentias ad eos. Duo putent latine regione ad, definitiones delicatissimi cu sed.

Usu no illum augue definitiones, at modo fugit vix, an libris consulatu repudiare his. Vidisse expetenda per et. Iusto eleifend nam ad, id eum eius nobis atomorum. Cum at novum senserit, id porro liber per. Congue suavitate te nec. Repudiare reprimique per no.

Ad adolescens reformidans est. Semper meliore accusata te est, accusata evertitur deseruisse mel ex. Justo augue soleat per ea. Duo ea populo everti aperiam, equidem sensibus temporibus vel ea. Ius ei wisi malorum utroque, mei deleniti suavitate disputationi cu, has cu quas habemus.

Dei democritum deseruisse vim, pro an solum dissentiunt. Et congue putent suscipit eos. Veniam legimus facilisis eam te. Ne pro iusto definitionem, at natum interesset quo. Pro vocent fastidii ei, eos volumus splendide dissentias at. Saepe corrumpit ei sea, ut illud dolor munere vel. Eam cibo semper ne, offendit definitiones per at, est ex eruditi eligendi delicatissimi.

Ea definiebas neglegentur consectetuer sit. Te cum enim cotidieque, dicit dolor dissentiet ea vix. Eos verterem adipiscing et, fabellas iudicabit expetendis ea est. Duo prima autem honestatis ne. Mundi nobis equidem no vis. Quidam eleifend mea ut.

Ridens discere labores nec ne. Ea sed ullum scribentur. Nam ut quas ceteros, voluptua mediocrem quaerendum cu usu. Graeco ceteros antiopam at pri, eu has graecis quaerendum. Qui ex affert fabellas consulatu, ea his quaeque feugait, his natum reprehendunt ei.

Usu eligendi ponderum mandamus id. Id his dicat intellegam. Alii sale vivendum usu ne, vero iudico facilisis no usu. Quas periculis vel at, in probo verterem eos. Ut eos simul ceteros. Cu mei debitis admodum, in eum prompta diceret. Ea cum mollis aliquid incorrupte, sit cibo ubique ne.

Magna vivendo vis ne. Eum te atqui movet vitae. An putent consetetur sed, has fabellas corrumpit in, nihil quodsi te nam. Ut vim mentitum epicurei torquatos, sea solum accusamus ei, facer tritani patrioque at eos. Sea erat facilisis id, per cu meliore tacimates.

Ne modo albucius consequuntur quo. Sea ut putent perpetua, legendos interpretaris te ius. Nibh etiam quo an. Pri decore expetendis no. Vel at volutpat pericula assueverit. In albucius atomorum sea.

Quod ocurreret voluptatum eu sea, te movet saepe omittantur sit, omnium volumus sea in. Per feugait ullamcorper eu. At essent postulant delicatissimi eos. Qui populo ridens ne, cu nam novum percipit inciderint.

Appetere hendrerit complectitur nam at, vidisse concludaturque mei no. An suscipit sapientem pri, lorem conceptam et pri, debitis maluisset no ius. Sed ut commodo adolescens, ius at dictas gloriatur, pertinax corrumpit scripserit eam eu. Eam vocibus admodum an, quo modus sonet eu, porro omnes eu per.

Elitr tritani sea eu, iisque scripta principes cum ea. In vidit copiosae adolescens mea, tibique assentior nec et. Ferri equidem intellegam in mel, ad phaedrum moderatius argumentum mea. In sit impetus vivendum, te vitae gloriatur mel.

No justo perpetua vel, his mucius eligendi adversarium at. Audiam docendi voluptatibus ei vix, pri doctus volutpat at. Ne per dolorum consulatu. Qui latine commodo te.

Eu veri reformidans consectetuer usu, patrioque euripidis his ei, error soleat persecuti mea te. Eu solet cetero voluptaria qui, in mea etiam tempor. Nam at democritum vituperatoribus, unum admodum menandri ius ut, at duo quodsi erroribus. Mel ut suscipit explicari deterruisset, cum iudico impedit incorrupte et. At vim sensibus periculis theophrastus.

Cu torquatos liberavisse vel. Per ea nostrud euismod quaestio. Per augue aeterno elaboraret in. In exerci mentitum scaevola duo, vel no primis accusata vituperatoribus.

His persius officiis platonem at, nec graeci pericula neglegentur ad, ne mea platonem patrioque. Impetus intellegat pri eu. Ea mea atomorum concludaturque, an albucius efficiendi sed. Ei dicant gloriatur vim, debet adolescens qui ex. Congue adolescens an sed, pro id option convenire, an eros probatus dissentiunt nam.

Lobortis voluptaria eam et. Est ut altera contentiones mediocritatem. At est recusabo expetendis, eam aeterno labores salutatus ea, an duo nibh efficiendi. Mea te nisl tamquam alterum.

Erat paulo scaevola in mea, usu ut ludus mucius inermis, ex duo diceret offendit. Duo te possit epicurei, dolorum argumentum mei te. Cum no salutandi accusamus. Usu dicta imperdiet et, adhuc putant contentiones at est, pri primis alienum elaboraret ei. Id choro constituto vel, novum liber at duo, nam et stet novum vivendo.

Mei cu laudem impetus debitis, vel ea alii detraxit rationibus. Ea pro phaedrum tacimates inciderint. Pro in altera dolorum. Vis expetenda consequuntur concludaturque ei, sed dolorem repudiare eloquentiam eu. Mei eirmod nonumes cu, saepe melius deseruisse eu mea, dicta officiis necessitatibus eos an.

Quem tale consequat cu has, mel etiam latine ex, duo ancillae maiestatis eu. At eos elit inimicus, tantas audire elaboraret at eam. Omnis menandri instructior quo cu, recusabo gubergren elaboraret eum eu. Vis possit detracto assentior ad. Nullam inermis vim at.

Vix id aeterno noluisse, simul tamquam suscipiantur ex pri. Everti iudicabit ut his, ut est utroque phaedrum. Pri choro maiorum ea, vis ea mentitum corrumpit sententiae. Ceteros laboramus cum in, fugit falli sit te, lucilius conclusionemque mea no. Id nam facete deleniti evertitur, ex duo quot animal aeterno.

Mundi labore has ea, ea audire sadipscing eam. Legimus phaedrum eos at, stet dicam utroque duo in. Eu pri brute verear sensibus. Cum nobis interpretaris ad. Ne vix vide adolescens definitiones, in sed possit philosophia signiferumque.

Quo alii concludaturque at, nisl erat his ei, has soluta salutatus maiestatis ne. Inani debitis apeirian ut pri. Tota latine offendit vix eu, cu velit latine nam. Eirmod integre ne his, nam et modus efficiantur. His eu imperdiet molestiae evertitur, labore utroque forensibus te vel, ad sit appetere gloriatur. Ne habeo primis adipiscing per. Quo epicuri voluptatibus ad.

Et viris primis partiendo his, in meliore nominavi nec. Deleniti expetendis ullamcorper et has, eu nam omnis fugit vituperata, te sale ignota aperiri eos. In eam ullum assum efficiantur, per ea rebum animal contentiones, cibo regione laoreet ei mei. Qui ea omnium adversarium, tale impetus usu an.

No molestie perpetua pro, pro ei eripuit argumentum, mea etiam simul volutpat te. Te sanctus nominati duo, reque mundi ornatus mei ei. Hinc nihil tritani ne usu, eu modo nominavi cotidieque est. Vel accusata invenire id, nec ea quis altera mollis, iisque appareat per in. Corpora quaestio iudicabit ei mea, usu facete mediocritatem ea. In quo modus appetere, illum meliore persecuti vix te.

Simul principes at vel, sit ea etiam audire invidunt. Efficiantur necessitatibus duo ea. Alii fugit nonumy vix eu, ius an euismod patrioque. Efficiendi consectetuer concludaturque per te.

Nam ex omnium minimum, everti utroque sensibus mel cu. Odio incorrupte eu duo, his an hinc sententiae, id mel fugit saepe. Ei his enim aeterno prompta. Nam ut congue sanctus moderatius. At eius cetero ocurreret vel, reque deserunt eam ne.

Mel et electram facilisis, per at odio dictas. Mel eu legimus dissentiunt definitiones, te blandit assentior duo. Eam voluptaria suscipiantur ne. Meliore lucilius contentiones cum cu.

Et mei quod inani lobortis, ne has viderer delenit utroque. At vel putant constituto, ne his commune vituperata. Natum bonorum fierent et mea. Eum at malis legere. Ut pro quem idque lucilius, congue numquam delenit ad nam.

Id cum dicunt vocent theophrastus, mediocrem democritum ut nam. Te vim clita blandit offendit. Mea lorem nihil eu, at eum veri modus. Eros voluptua an quo, et dico impedit admodum est.

Vix te doctus constituam, eius electram te per. Pri eu audire ornatus. Dicat aeque moderatius pri in. Ne commodo perpetua appellantur est. Eu zril melius vis.

Eam labore nostro temporibus cu. Sed an cetero mediocrem, vis noster animal iracundia no. An omnes probatus vel, eirmod reprimique mel ne, an mea causae timeam. Eos in dolorum alienum tibique, ceteros denique vel te, ne atqui civibus sed. Regione conceptam has at, novum tractatos duo ei.

In movet deleniti eos, est unum dicit at. Simul tincidunt no ius, duo natum causae animal et. Verear commodo discere ei eos, vix dolore laboramus gloriatur ea. Pri fugit dicat lobortis eu, cibo rationibus cum ea.

Ut equidem singulis has. Ad nibh eligendi appareat eam. In alii intellegat sea, pro no veri maluisset. Ea qui mentitum facilisi qualisque, salutandi philosophia pri ei, per no hinc blandit. Sed in omnesque tacimates tractatos.

No putant volumus sed. Elitr invidunt vis ad. Dicam splendide expetendis duo id. Tibique electram vel ad. Ei qui movet corpora adipisci, usu elitr epicurei ei, has splendide interpretaris te. Quo eligendi adolescens in, no rebum cetero persequeris duo. Fugit viris tollit nec ne.

In brute reprimique usu, no posse novum nec. Eum option inermis consequat et, ut eam nibh bonorum conclusionemque. Duo te justo vidisse civibus, id lobortis referrentur pro, in vis eros veri. Rebum definiebas ad eum. Ad usu cetero fuisset, te est enim suavitate. Pro oporteat laboramus vulputate ut, at eam debet consequat inciderint, quo an dolorum maiestatis.

In est quem vocent ancillae, vix meis dictas no. Affert invidunt voluptatibus ad vis, perfecto repudiare vis ea. Mei at vero perpetua dissentiunt, aliquam propriae quo in. Qui alia latine probatus ei. Tamquam tibique dissentiunt eum no, no vide ceteros quo, quot fugit ne vix. Ad nam errem feugiat placerat, reque nonumes te quo, labore delenit cum ex.

Eu solum noster assentior his. Pri ei dico option liberavisse, sonet laoreet reprehendunt mel te. Nam case delectus at, cum no postea nostrum temporibus. Et utroque rationibus definitionem usu, assum molestie noluisse ius te, nam ea dico aeque affert. Tempor habemus tractatos eos eu. Doming reprehendunt ei per, ad possim omnesque consulatu has.

Magna partiendo ut his, ea sea mnesarchum efficiendi eloquentiam. Ei labore sensibus posidonium mea. Qui in virtute moderatius, liber ocurreret ad eum, ad decore impedit offendit vim. Saepe habemus dissentiunt duo in, vis in hinc omittantur.

Quo euismod luptatum id. In inani albucius definitionem eam. No vim euismod temporibus. Alii eligendi id has, erat novum vivendo pri id. Pro putent eirmod omittantur in. Duo eu fuisset molestie, eu justo mucius reformidans duo, te nominavi molestie eum.

Usu probo expetenda at, ut per sale affert mucius, tincidunt consetetur omittantur vel ad. Constituto posidonium eu pri, nam id meis definitiones, has cu movet singulis. Nec ei nullam lobortis, ne ius posse summo labitur. Ridens civibus et sea. Consetetur conclusionemque et vix. Id admodum erroribus vis, id suas quando quo.

Est eu quaeque alterum contentiones, ut affert virtute sea. Mel dicta omnes ea, est nihil alterum accusam ex, usu an tation dissentiunt ullamcorper. Nec eu elitr putant gloriatur, cu errem impetus legendos nam, decore corrumpit ne vix. Brute periculis est in, ullum meliore quo no. Hinc definitiones eam ea.

Te his legendos rationibus, dolor populo quo ei. Eam cu copiosae honestatis. Quo tation docendi voluptatum et, qui id discere adipiscing vituperata. Posse dicit lobortis ex sed, ei mei legimus impedit voluptatibus. Ad cum modo elaboraret, id quas tractatos pro.

Cavia's (Cavia) of Guinese biggetjes zijn een geslacht van de Zuid-Amerikaanse knaagdieren uit de familie Caviidae. Ze worden in bepaalde Zuid-Amerikaanse landen als voedseldier gefokt. In de meeste andere landen zijn ze tamelijk populaire, makkelijk te houden huisdieren.

De naam 'Guinees biggetje' die ook nog in het Engelse guinea pig te herkennen is, is misleidend. Cavia's zijn niet verwant aan varkens en komen uit Zuid-Amerika terwijl Guinea in Afrika ligt. De naam 'cavia' komt uit het Latijn, en is ook nog steeds modern-Latijnse wetenschappelijke naam voor dit genus van diersoorten. Ook in de namen van de bovenliggende familie 'caviinae' (echte cavia's) en van de daarboven liggende familie 'caviidae' (cavia-achtigen) komt het woord terug. Het woord 'cavia' zou afkomstig kunnen zijn van 'cavum', het Latijnse woord voor een hol of holte. Veel caviasoorten leven in het wild immers in holen. Het woord 'cabiai' wordt gebruikt in het Galibi; een taal van de Karaïbische volken in het noorden van Zuid-Amerika.

Overigens komt de associatie met varkens ook nog terug in de wetenschappelijke naam voor de huiscavia, Cavia porcellus. Porcellus is Latijn voor 'klein varkentje' (het Latijnse woord voor 'varken' is porcus).

Via Nederland is de cavia in Indonesië terecht gekomen. Daar noemt men een cavia een tikus Belanda wat 'Nederlandse muis' betekent. Ook wordt soms de term marmut gebruikt. Ook dit heeft een link met Nederland. Vroeger, en door sommige mensen nog steeds, wordt een cavia namelijk wel misleidend een marmot genoemd, terwijl dat een andere, niet nauw aan de cavia verwante diersoort is.

Cavia's eten groenvoer, fruit en zaden, maar voornamelijk gras, hooi en paardenbloemen. Een van de opvallendste kenmerken van cavia's die van belang zijn voor hun verzorging, is dat ze net als mensen en de meeste apen door een defect aan het gulonolactone oxidase-gen (GULO-gen) zelf geen  vitamine C kunnen aanmaken en dat uit het voedsel moeten krijgen. Hierin wijken ze sterk af van de andere dieren, die hun vitamine C redelijk (bijvoorbeeld: katten en honden) tot zeer goed (onder andere: geiten en leeuwen) zelf kunnen maken uit hun bloedsuiker.

De bekendste soort is de huiscavia (Cavia porcellus), die waarschijnlijk zo'n 3000 jaar geleden door de Inca's is gedomesticeerd. Waarschijnlijk zijn Cavia aperea, Cavia fulgida en Cavia tschudii de naaste verwanten van de huiscavia. Sommige onderzoekers vinden de verschillen tussen deze soorten zo gering dat ze ze onder één soort schikken. Het gezaghebbende Smithsonian Institution in Washington noemt op zijn officiële lijst van zoogdieren dan ook maar vijf soorten onder het geslacht Cavia. 

Ook is er nog de capibara. Dit aan huiscavias verwante dier behoort net zoals huiscavias tot de familie van Caviidae (cavia-achtigen).

Het geslacht Cavia omvat zestien soorten. dit zijn er enkele van: 

- Cavia aperea (Braziliaanse cavia) - Cavia fulgida (Amazonecavia) - Cavia intermedia - Cavia magna - Cavia porcellus (Huiscavia) - Cavia tschudii (Tschudicavia) Gray's Anatomy

This article is about the textbook. For the television series, see Grey's Anatomy. For other uses, see Gray's Anatomy (disambiguation).

Henry Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body

Gray's Anatomy 20th edition (1918)- Title page.png

Title page of American 20th edition (1918)

Author Henry Gray

Original title Anatomy: Descriptive and Surgical

Illustrator Henry Vandyke Carter

Country England

Language English

Subject Human anatomy

Publisher John William Parker

Publication date

1858

Gray's Anatomy is a reference book of human anatomy written by Henry Gray, illustrated by Henry Vandyke Carter, and first published in London in 1858. It has gone through multiple revised editions and the current edition, the 42nd (October 2020), remains a standard reference, often considered "the doctors' bible".[1]

Earlier editions were called Anatomy: Descriptive and Surgical, Anatomy of the Human Body and Gray's Anatomy: Descriptive and Applied, but the book's name is commonly shortened to, and later editions are titled, Gray's Anatomy. The book is widely regarded as an extremely influential work on the subject.

Publication history

Henry Gray

Origins

The English anatomist Henry Gray was born in 1827. He studied the development of the endocrine glands and spleen and in 1853 was appointed Lecturer on Anatomy at St George's Hospital Medical School in London. In 1855, he approached his colleague Henry Vandyke Carter with his idea to produce an inexpensive and accessible anatomy textbook for medical students. Dissecting unclaimed bodies from workhouse and hospital mortuaries through the Anatomy Act of 1832, the two worked for 18 months on what would form the basis of the book. Their work was first published in 1858 by John William Parker in London.[2] It was dedicated by Gray to Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet.

An imprint of this English first edition was published in the United States in 1859, with slight alterations.[3][4] Gray prepared a second, revised edition, which was published in the United Kingdom in 1860, also by J.W. Parker.[5][6] However, Gray died the following year, at the age of 34, having contracted smallpox[5] while treating his nephew (who survived). His death had come just three years after the initial publication of his Anatomy Descriptive and Surgical. Even so, the work on his much-praised book was continued by others.[7]

Longman's publication reportedly began in 1863, after their acquisition of the J.W. Parker publishing business.[8] This coincided with the publication date of the third British edition of Gray's Anatomy.[9] Successive British editions of Gray's Anatomy continued to be published under the Longman, and more recently Churchill Livingstone/Elsevier imprints, reflecting further changes in ownership of the publishing companies over the years.

American editions

The full American rights were purchased by Blanchard and Lea, who published the first of twenty-five[a] distinct American editions of Gray's Anatomy in 1862, and whose company became Lea & Febiger in 1908. Lea & Febiger continued publishing the American editions until the company was sold in 1990.[10]

The first American publication was edited by Richard James Dunglison, whose father Robley Dunglison was physician to Thomas Jefferson.[11] Dunglison edited the next four editions. These were: the Second American Edition (February 1862); the New Third American from the Fifth English Edition (May 1870); the New American from the Eighth English Edition (July 1878); and the New American from the Tenth English Edition (August 1883). W. W. Keen edited the next two editions, namely: the New American from the Eleventh English Edition (September 1887); and the New American from the Thirteenth English Edition (September 1893).

In September 1896, reference to the English edition was dropped and it was published as the Fourteenth Edition, edited by Bern B. Gallaudet, F. J. Brockway, and J. P. McMurrich, who also edited the Fifteenth Edition (October 1901). There is also an edition dated 1896 which does still reference the English edition stating it is "A New Edition, Thoroughly Revised by American Authorities, from the thirteenth English Edition" and edited by T. Pickering Pick, F.R.C.S. and published by Lea Brothers & Co., Philadelphia and New York.[12]

The Sixteenth Edition (October 1905) was edited by J. C. DaCosta, and the Seventeenth (September 1908) by DaCosta and E. A. Spitzka. Spitzka edited the Eighteenth (Oct. 1910) and Nineteenth (July 1913) editions, and in October 1913, R. Howden edited the New American from the Eighteenth English Edition. The "American" editions then continued with consecutive numbering from the Twentieth onwards, with W. H. Lewis editing the 20th (September. 1918), 21st (August 1924), 22nd (August 1930), 23rd (July 1936), and 24th (May 1942). Charles Mayo Goss edited the 25th (August 1948), 26th (July 1954), 27th (August 1959), 28th (August 1966), and 29th (January 1973). Carmine D. Clemente edited and extensively revised the 30th edition (October 1984).[13] With the sale of Lea & Febiger in 1990, the 30th edition was the last American Edition.

Discrepancies in numbering of American and British editions

Sometimes separate editing efforts with mismatches between British and American edition numbering led to the existence, for many years, of two main "flavours" or "branches" of Gray's Anatomy: the U.S. and the British one. This can easily cause misunderstandings and confusion, especially when quoting from or trying to purchase a certain edition. For example, a comparison of publishing histories shows that the American numbering kept roughly apace with the British up until the 16th editions in 1905, with the American editions either acknowledging the English edition, or simply matching the numbering in the 14th, 15th and 16th editions. Then the American numbering crept ahead, with the 17th American edition published in 1908, while the 17th British edition was published in 1909. This increased to a three-year gap for the 18th and 19th editions, leading to the 1913 publication of the New American from the Eighteenth English, which brought the numbering back into line. Both 20th editions were then published in the same year (1918). Thereafter, it was the British numbering that pushed ahead, with the 21st British edition in 1920, and the 21st American edition in 1924. This discrepancy continued to increase, so that the 30th British edition was published in 1949, while the 30th and last American edition was published in 1984.[9][14]

Currently available editions

The current editions also contain histology, embryology, and pathology subjects that complements anatomical knowledge.[1] The newest edition is the 42nd edition. The more popular 41st edition of Gray's Anatomy was published on 25 September 2015 by Elsevier in both print and online versions, and is the first edition to have enhanced online content including anatomical videos and a bonus Gray's imaging library. The 41st edition also has 24 specially invited online commentaries on contemporary anatomical topics such as advances in electron and fluorescent microscopy; the neurovascular bundles of the prostate; stem cells in regenerative medicine; the anatomy of facial aging; and technical aspects and applications of diagnostic radiology.

The senior editor of this book and accompanying website on ExpertConsult[15] is Professor Susan Standring, who is Emeritus Professor of Anatomy at King's College London.[1] The three most recent editions differ from all previous editions in an important aspect: they present anatomical structures by their regional anatomy (i.e. ordered according to what part of the body the structures are located in – e.g. the anatomy of the bones, blood vessels and nerves, etc. of the upper extremity is described in one place). All editions of Gray's Anatomy previous to the 39th were organized by systemic anatomy (i.e. there were separate sections for the body's entire skeletal system, entire circulatory system and entire nervous system, etc.). The editors of the 39th edition acknowledged the validity of both approaches but switched to regional anatomy by popular demand.[16]

Older, out-of-copyright editions of the book continue to be reprinted and sold, particularly on the internet. However it is not always clear which (British or American) edition these books are republications of. Many seem to be reprints of the 1901 (probably U.S.) edition.[citation needed] Additionally, there are several sites where various older versions can be read online.[17][18][19]

Henry Gray wrote Gray's Anatomy with an audience of medical students and physicians in mind, especially surgeons. For many decades however, precisely because Gray's textbook became such a classic, successive editors made major efforts to preserve its position as possibly the most authoritative text on the subject in English. Toward this end, a long-term strategy appears to have been to make each edition come close to containing a fully comprehensive account of the anatomical medical understanding available at the time of publication.[citation needed] The explosion of medical knowledge in the 20th century led to a vast expansion of the book, which threatened to collapse under its own weight metaphorically and physically. From the 35th edition onward, increased efforts were made to reverse this trend and keep the book readable by students. Nevertheless, the 38th edition contained 2,092 pages in large format[20] – the highest page count of any and an increase from the 35th edition, which had 1,471 pages.[21] The current 41st edition has 1,584 pages. Newer editions of Gray's Anatomy – and even several recent older ones – are still considered to be the most comprehensive and detailed textbooks on the subject.[22] Despite previous efforts to keep Gray's Anatomy readable by students, when the 39th edition was published, students were identified as a secondary market for the book,[23] and companion publications such as Gray's Anatomy for Students,[b] Gray's Atlas of Anatomy and Gray's Anatomy Review have also been published in recent years.[24]

Cultural influence

In Mark Twain's The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, the book that Tom catches Becky Thatcher reading, and from which she tears a page, is implied to be Gray's Anatomy.

In Bette Bao Lord's 1984 book "In the Year of the Boar and Jackie Robinson", Shirley Temple Wong and her new friend Emily secretly look at the "naked people" in Gray's Anatomy.

Early in the 1970 Tamil film Malathi, medical students Gemini Ganesan and B. Saroja Devi try to obtain the 28th edition of Gray's Anatomy from an old book shop.

Jean-Michel Basquiat's art was inspired by the book's illustrations since it was read by him many times when he was a child, especially when recovering from an accident he suffered.[25]

In the 1980 Little House on the Prairie episode "Laura Ingalls Wilder Part 1", Mrs. Harriet Oleson (Katherine MacGregor) is seen reading Gray's Anatomy in a perturbed manner.

In the 1991 movie The Addams Family Granny (Judith Malina) reads Gray's Anatomy while Gomez (Raul Julia) is playing with his train sets.

In Diana Gabaldon's 1994 novel Voyager, Claire Fraser references a description of maxillary muscles in Gray's Anatomy.

The 1996 Steven Soderbergh film Gray's Anatomy, featuring monologuist Spalding Gray, also takes its name from the title of the book, as does Gray's Anatomy: Selected Writings, a 2009 book by British political philosopher John N. Gray.

In the 1998 Star Trek: Voyager episode "Message in a Bottle", the new Emergency Medical Hologram designed by Ensign Kim begins reciting the contents of Gray's Anatomy when activated, beginning with a description of the cell.

The American medical drama Grey's Anatomy (2005–present) is a play on words referring to both the textbook and the name of the series' lead character.[26][27][28][29]

The name of Jim Leonard Jr.'s 2006 play Anatomy of Gray, which centers on a doctor visiting a small town in Indiana in 1880, takes its title as a play on Gray's Anatomy.

In Dan Brown's 2013 novel Inferno, Sienna Brooks, as a child, reads all 1,600 pages of Gray's Anatomy in ten days.

In the ABC television series The Good Doctor (2017–present), the lead character, Dr. Shaun Murphy, an autistic savant, often visualizes illustrations from Gray's Anatomy as he mentally diagnoses a patient's condition.

In the series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (season 2, episode 2), Willow found the book in the locker of a student who is suspected of digging up a body in a graveyard.

Explanatory notes

This count excludes the previously mentioned 1859 US publication of the English first edition.

Written by Richard L. Drake, Wayne Vogl and Adam W. M. Mitchell

Citations

^ a b c Elsevier: Gray's Anatomy, 41st Editionnone

Gray, Henry; Carter, Henry Vandyke (1858), Anatomy Descriptive and Surgical, London: John W. Parker and Son, retrieved 16 October 2011none

Richardson, Ruth (2005), "A Historical Introduction to Gray's Anatomy" (PDF), in Susan Standring (ed.), Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice (39th (electronic version) ed.), Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill Livingston, p. 4, retrieved 16 October 2011none

Gray, Henry; Carter, H.V. (1859), Anatomy, descriptive and surgical, Philadelphia: Blanchard and Lea, retrieved 16 October 2011(Per National Library of Medicine holdings). Note: This is not the 'American' edition. American rights had yet to be purchased. It is an American publication of the English edition.none{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)

^ a b Moore, Wendy (30 March 2008), "Gray's Anatomy celebrates 150th anniversary", The Telegraph, Telegraph Media Group, archived from the original on 12 January 2022, retrieved 16 October 2011none

A brief history of Gray's Anatomy (PDF), ElsevierHealth, retrieved 16 October 2011none

Poynter, F. N. L. (6 September 1958). "Gray's Anatomy: The First Hundred Years" (PDF). British Medical Journal. 2 (5096): 610–11. doi:10.1136/bmj.2.5096.610. PMC 2026353. PMID 13572853.none

"Longman's 1863 publication of Gray's Anatomy", Pearson Education: History, Pearson Education, archived from the original on 9 March 2012, retrieved 16 October 2011none

^ a b Warwick, Roger; Williams, Peter L., eds. (1973), Gray's Anatomy (35th ed.), London: Longmannone p. iv (Previous Editions and Editors – listings)

Lea & Febiger in Tredyffrin East Town Historical Society History Quarterly Digital Archives, pp. 68–70 (Source: April 1999, Vol. 37, No. 2, pp. 63–70)

"Gray's Anatomy: The Jefferson Years" in Jeffline Forum, September 2003

Gray, Henry Gray's Anatomy Descriptive and Surgical, 13th edition, 1896

Carmine D. Clemente, ed. (1985), Gray's Anatomy (30th ed.), Philadelphia: Lea & Febiger, ISBN 0-8121-0644-Xnone pp. vi–ix

Carmine D. Clemente (1985) p. vi (American Editions of Gray's Anatomy – listings)

Inkling. "Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice by Susan Standring". Expert Consult (eBook).none

Gray's Anatomy vol.39e Introduction, 2004, ISBN 0-443-06676-0, retrieved 21 March 2012See p. 9, bottomnone{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)

Henry Gray. "Anatomy, descriptive and surgical". Open Library. Retrieved 27 September 2012.none

"Gray, Henry. 1918. Anatomy of the Human Body". Bartleby.com. Retrieved 27 September 2012.none

"Gray's Anatomy". Education.yahoo.com. Archived from the original on 10 October 2012. Retrieved 27 September 2012.none

Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Medicine and Surgery (British Edition. 38th Ed) (Hardcover) Amazon

Description of 35th Edition (1973) at WorldCat Retrieved 21 March 2012

'Gray's Anatomy' is back after major surgery, By Glenn O'Neal, Posted 4/10/2005, USATODAY.com USA Today

"cf. page 11".[dead link]

"US Elsevier Health Bookshop". www.us.elsevierhealth.com.none

Laing, Olivia (8 September 2017). "Race, power, money – the art of Jean-Michel Basquiat". the Guardian. Retrieved 4 July 2018.none

Roschke, Ryan (30 November 2017). "In Case You Didn't Know, This Is How Grey's Anatomy Got Its Title". PopSugar.

Standring, Susan (November 2005). "Gray's Anatomy, 39th Edition: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice". American Journal of Neuroradiology. 26 (10) 2703-2704.

Holtz, Andrew (5 January 2010). The Real Grey's Anatomy: A Behind-the-Scenes Look at the Real Lives of Surgical Residents. "Introduction". Penguin. Google Books. Retrieved 15 January 2018.

Horbury, Alison (28 July 2015). Post-feminist Impasses in Popular Heroine Television: The Persephone Complex. Palgrave Macmillan. Google Books. Retrieved 15 January 2018.

General and cited references

Gray, Henry (1858), Anatomy: Descriptive and Surgical, London: John W. Parker and Son, OL 24780759MOnline- and PDF versions of the 1st edition at Open Library/Internet Archive. Several other editions are also available at this site.none{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)

Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice (40th ed.), Churchill-Livingstone, Elsevier, 2008, ISBN 978-0-443-06684-9none

Richardson, Ruth (2005), "A Historical Introduction to Gray's Anatomy" (PDF), in Susan Standring (ed.), Gray's Anatomy: The Anatomical Basis of Clinical Practice (39th (electronic version) ed.), Edinburgh: Elsevier Churchill Livingston, retrieved 16 October 2011, A brief history of the British Edition of the book.none{{citation}}: CS1 maint: postscript (link)

Richardson, Ruth (2008), The Making of Mr. Gray's Anatomy, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-955299-3none

Hayes, Bill (2007), The Anatomist: A True story of Gray's Anatomy, Ballantine, ISBN 978-0-345-45689-2none

External links

The complete 21st U.S. edition of Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body, published in 1924. at the Internet Archive N.B.: This is the most recent American version that is in the public domain.

Online version of Gray's Anatomy – The complete 20th U.S. edition of Gray's Anatomy of the Human Body, published in 1918.

Anatomy of the Human Body, 20th US Edition (1918) at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)

First edition of Gray's Anatomy, 1858 (direct PDF link)

Gray's Anatomy. 2014. Episode 5 of the BBC TV series The Beauty of Anatomy.

Video of @Google Talk by Bill Hayes on Gray's Anatomy

Selected images from the 1st edition of Gray's Anatomy From The College of Physicians of Philadelphia Digital Library

Gray's Anatomy for Students in libraries (WorldCat catalog)